“This article explores the divergent post-independence trajectories of India and Pakistan, analyzing factors like the unequal distribution of assets, differences in political leadership, and economic strategies. Despite the challenges, including an unfair inheritance and political instability, Pakistan has shown remarkable resilience and survival through strategic alliances, a dynamic civil society, and an entrepreneurial spirit.”
The partition of British India in 1947 marked the birth of two independent nations: India and Pakistan. While both countries began their journeys as sovereign states from a shared colonial history, their trajectories in the subsequent decades have been starkly different. India emerged as a relatively stable democracy with a burgeoning economy, while Pakistan has faced numerous challenges, including political instability, economic hardships, and security concerns. This article delves into the inherent factors that shaped these divergent paths, focusing on the challenges Pakistan faced, particularly India’s refusal to pass on financial and military shares, and how Pakistan managed to survive and thrive despite the odds.
The Unequal Inheritance
At the time of partition, the division of assets between India and Pakistan was starkly unequal, leaving Pakistan in a precarious position. The British Indian Empire’s assets, which included financial reserves, military equipment, and administrative infrastructure, were to be divided based on population, with Pakistan entitled to approximately 17.5% of these assets.
Financially, the Reserve Bank of India held cash reserves totaling around $1 billion (at the time, equivalent to ₹4 billion). Based on the agreed-upon ratio, Pakistan was entitled to approximately $175 million. However, Pakistan received only $50 million initially. The remaining $125 million was withheld by India due to rising tensions, particularly over the Kashmir conflict. It was only after significant international pressure and Mahatma Gandhi’s intervention that India eventually agreed to transfer another $125 million, but by then, the delay had severely hampered Pakistan’s ability to stabilize its economy.
In terms of military assets, the British Indian Army’s vast resources were to be similarly divided, with Pakistan entitled to 17.5% of the military equipment. However, Pakistan received only a fraction of what was promised. Of the total military equipment valued at approximately $800 million, Pakistan was to receive around $140 million worth of assets. In reality, Pakistan received equipment worth significantly less, much of it outdated or non-functional. Furthermore, out of 16 ordnance factories in British India, none were located in Pakistan, leaving the new state without any indigenous capability to produce weapons or ammunition.
The industrial divide was also significant. The vast majority of industrial infrastructure, including textile mills, steel plants, and engineering industries, was located in areas that became part of India. Pakistan inherited only about 10% of British India’s industrial plants, with the value of industrial assets transferred to Pakistan estimated at less than $25 million, while India retained the rest, worth several hundred million dollars.
Adding to these challenges was the massive refugee crisis that followed partition. Approximately 14 million people were displaced, with around 7 million Muslims migrating to Pakistan. This sudden influx of refugees created a significant strain on Pakistan’s already limited resources, exacerbating economic and social challenges.
In conclusion, the division of assets between India and Pakistan was not only unequal but executed in a way that severely disadvantaged Pakistan. With limited financial resources, insufficient military equipment, and underdeveloped infrastructure, Pakistan faced enormous challenges in its early years, forcing it to find ways to survive and eventually thrive despite these adversities.
Political Foundations and Leadership
Another critical factor in the differing trajectories of India and Pakistan lies in the political foundations and leadership that each country inherited. India, under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru and the Indian National Congress, had a relatively well-established political framework that emphasized democracy, secularism, and a mixed economy. Nehru’s vision of a socialist-leaning state with strong central institutions provided India with a stable political environment, allowing for gradual economic development and social reforms.
In contrast, Pakistan’s political foundation was less stable. The Muslim League, which had spearheaded the demand for Pakistan, was primarily a movement rather than a well-organized political party. After independence, the party struggled to transition from a freedom movement to a governing body. The early death of Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Pakistan’s founding father, in 1948, and the assassination of Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan in 1951, left a leadership vacuum that exacerbated political instability. The country’s diverse ethnic composition, with significant linguistic and cultural differences between East and West Pakistan, further complicated governance and led to tensions that would eventually culminate in the secession of East Pakistan in 1971.
Economic Strategies and Industrial Development
The economic strategies adopted by India and Pakistan also played a significant role in their differing trajectories. India, under Nehru’s leadership, adopted a mixed economy model, with a strong emphasis on state-led industrialization and self-sufficiency. The Indian government launched a series of Five-Year Plans aimed at developing key industries, infrastructure, and agriculture. This approach, while not without its flaws, laid the foundation for India’s long-term economic growth and diversification.
Pakistan, on the other hand, faced significant economic challenges from the outset. The country lacked a well-developed industrial base, particularly in West Pakistan, and was heavily reliant on agriculture, which was vulnerable to fluctuations in weather and international markets. The early economic policies of Pakistan were focused on building a strong central state and developing industries, but these efforts were often hampered by political instability and a lack of resources.
Despite these challenges, Pakistan managed to achieve significant economic progress in its early years, particularly during the 1960s under the leadership of President Ayub Khan. Ayub’s government implemented a series of economic reforms, including the Green Revolution, which boosted agricultural production, and the development of large-scale industries in Karachi and Lahore. These efforts led to impressive economic growth rates, with Pakistan often cited as a model of development for other newly independent countries.
However, the economic gains of the 1960s were not evenly distributed, leading to growing disparities between East and West Pakistan and contributing to political unrest. The loss of East Pakistan in 1971 dealt a severe blow to Pakistan’s economy, but the country managed to recover, thanks in part to remittances from Pakistani workers abroad and international aid.
Social Cohesion and National Identity
Social cohesion and national identity have been crucial factors in the differing trajectories of India and Pakistan. India, despite its vast diversity, managed to forge a sense of national identity based on secularism and democratic values. The Indian Constitution, adopted in 1950, enshrined the principles of equality, justice, and fraternity, which helped to foster a sense of unity among the country’s diverse population.
Pakistan, on the other hand, faced challenges in creating a cohesive national identity. The country’s founding ideology was based on the Two-Nation Theory, which emphasized the distinct identity of Muslims in the subcontinent. However, this religious identity alone was not sufficient to unite the diverse ethnic, linguistic, and cultural groups within Pakistan. The tensions between East and West Pakistan, rooted in linguistic and economic differences, eventually led to the disintegration of the country in 1971.
In the years following the secession of East Pakistan, the Pakistani state sought to forge a stronger sense of national identity by emphasizing Islam as the unifying factor. This approach, while successful to some extent, has also led to challenges, particularly in balancing the role of religion in public life with the need to accommodate the country’s diverse population.
Pakistan’s Resilience and Survival
Despite the numerous challenges it faced, Pakistan has demonstrated remarkable resilience and an ability to survive and adapt in a difficult environment. The country has endured wars, political turmoil, economic crises, and natural disasters, yet it has managed to maintain its sovereignty and continue its development.
One of the key factors in Pakistan’s survival has been its strategic location, which has made it a critical player in regional and global geopolitics. During the Cold War, Pakistan’s alliance with the United States provided it with military and economic assistance, which helped to bolster its defense capabilities and support its development efforts. In the post-Cold War era, Pakistan has continued to play a significant role in regional security, particularly in relation to Afghanistan and the broader South Asian region.
Another factor in Pakistan’s resilience has been the strength of its civil society and the adaptability of its people. Despite political instability and economic challenges, Pakistan has a vibrant civil society, a dynamic private sector, and a growing middle class. The country’s youth, in particular, have shown remarkable entrepreneurial spirit, contributing to the growth of sectors such as technology, media, and education.
Conclusion
The divergent trajectories of India and Pakistan since independence can be attributed to a complex interplay of factors, including the unequal inheritance of resources, differences in political leadership and strategies, economic policies, and social cohesion. While India benefited from a more stable political foundation, a stronger industrial base, and a cohesive national identity, Pakistan faced significant challenges, including the unequal division of resources and political instability.
However, Pakistan’s story is not one of failure. As Pakistan looks to the future, it is essential to draw lessons from its history and build on its strengths to overcome the challenges that lie ahead.
